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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=Edge" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>What’s New In Python 3.2 — Python 3.6.7 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pydoctheme.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 3.6.7 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" /> <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="next" title="What’s New In Python 3.1" href="3.1.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="What’s New In Python 3.3" href="3.3.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.2.html" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head><body> <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="3.1.html" title="What’s New In Python 3.1" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="3.3.html" title="What’s New In Python 3.3" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">3.6.7 Documentation</a> » </li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" accesskey="U">What’s New in Python</a> »</li> <li class="right"> <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search"> <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script> | </li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body" role="main"> <div class="section" id="what-s-new-in-python-3-2"> <h1>What’s New In Python 3.2<a class="headerlink" href="#what-s-new-in-python-3-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <table class="docutils field-list" frame="void" rules="none"> <col class="field-name" /> <col class="field-body" /> <tbody valign="top"> <tr class="field-odd field"><th class="field-name">Author:</th><td class="field-body">Raymond Hettinger</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p>This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1. It focuses on a few highlights and gives a few examples. For full details, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/3.2/Misc/NEWS">Misc/NEWS</a> file.</p> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <p class="last"><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0392"><strong>PEP 392</strong></a> - Python 3.2 Release Schedule</p> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi"> <h2>PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often not usable with other Python versions. Particularly on Windows, every feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that one wanted to use. This requirement was the result of the free access to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.</p> <p>With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several releases. As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on. Extension modules that make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will need to be recompiled for every feature release.</p> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="last docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0384"><strong>PEP 384</strong></a> - Defining a Stable ABI</dt> <dd>PEP written by Martin von Löwis.</dd> </dl> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module"> <h2>PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>A new module for command line parsing, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a>, was introduced to overcome the limitations of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a> which did not provide support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands, required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating options.</p> <p>This module has already had widespread success in the community as a third-party module. Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> module is now the preferred module for command-line processing. The older module is still being kept available because of the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.</p> <p>Here’s an annotated example parser showing features like limiting results to a set of choices, specifying a <em>metavar</em> in the help screen, validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making a required option:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span> <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">description</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'Manage servers'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># main description for help</span> <span class="n">epilog</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'Tested on Solaris and Linux'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># displayed after help</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'action'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># argument name</span> <span class="n">choices</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'deploy'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'start'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'stop'</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="c1"># three allowed values</span> <span class="n">help</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'action on each target'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># help msg</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'targets'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">metavar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'HOSTNAME'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># var name used in help msg</span> <span class="n">nargs</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'+'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># require one or more targets</span> <span class="n">help</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'url for target machines'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># help msg explanation</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'-u'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'--user'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># -u or --user option</span> <span class="n">required</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># make it a required argument</span> <span class="n">help</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'login as user'</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Example of calling the parser on a command string:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">cmd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">cmd</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">action</span> <span class="go">'deploy'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">targets</span> <span class="go">['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">user</span> <span class="go">'skycaptain'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Example of the parser’s automatically generated help:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse_args</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'-h'</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">split</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="go">usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER</span> <span class="go"> {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]</span> <span class="go">Manage servers</span> <span class="go">positional arguments:</span> <span class="go"> {deploy,start,stop} action on each target</span> <span class="go"> HOSTNAME url for target machines</span> <span class="go">optional arguments:</span> <span class="go"> -h, --help show this help message and exit</span> <span class="go"> -u USER, --user USER login as user</span> <span class="go">Tested on Solaris and Linux</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>An especially nice <a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#module-argparse" title="argparse: Command-line option and argument parsing library."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">argparse</span></code></a> feature is the ability to define subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">argparse</span> <span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">argparse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ArgumentParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prog</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'HELM'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_subparsers</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="n">parser_l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'launch'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'Launch Control'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># first subgroup</span> <span class="n">parser_l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'-m'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'--missiles'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'store_true'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">parser_l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'-t'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'--torpedos'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">action</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'store_true'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">parser_m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">subparsers</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_parser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'move'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">help</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'Move Vessel'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># second subgroup</span> <span class="n">aliases</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'steer'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'turn'</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># equivalent names</span> <span class="n">parser_m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'-c'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'--course'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">required</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="kc">True</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">parser_m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add_argument</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'-s'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'--speed'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">type</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">default</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py --help <span class="c1"># top level help (launch and move)</span> <span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py launch --help <span class="c1"># help for launch options</span> <span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py launch --missiles <span class="c1"># set missiles=True and torpedos=False</span> <span class="gp">$</span> ./helm.py steer --course <span class="m">180</span> --speed <span class="m">5</span> <span class="c1"># set movement parameters</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0389"><strong>PEP 389</strong></a> - New Command Line Parsing Module</dt> <dd>PEP written by Steven Bethard.</dd> </dl> <p class="last"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code"><span class="std std-ref">Upgrading optparse code</span></a> for details on the differences from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/optparse.html#module-optparse" title="optparse: Command-line option parsing library. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">optparse</span></code></a>.</p> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging"> <h2>PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> module provided two kinds of configuration, one style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an external file saved in a <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> format. Those options did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is needed for specifying logger options from a command line.</p> <p>To support a more flexible style, the module now offers <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.config.html#logging.config.dictConfig" title="logging.config.dictConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.config.dictConfig()</span></code></a> for specifying logging configuration with plain Python dictionaries. The configuration options include formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers. Here’s a working example of a configuration dictionary:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">"version"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"formatters"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">"brief"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">"format"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"</span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="s2">"full"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">"format"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"</span><span class="si">%(asctime)s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%(name)-15s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)-8s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="p">},</span> <span class="s2">"handlers"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">"console"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="s2">"class"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"logging.StreamHandler"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"formatter"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"brief"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"level"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"INFO"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"stream"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"ext://sys.stdout"</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="s2">"console_priority"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="s2">"class"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"logging.StreamHandler"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"formatter"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"full"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"level"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"ERROR"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"stream"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"ext://sys.stderr"</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="p">},</span> <span class="s2">"root"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s2">"level"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s2">"DEBUG"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"handlers"</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"console"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"console_priority"</span><span class="p">]}}</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>If that dictionary is stored in a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">conf.json</span></code>, it can be loaded and called with code like this:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">json</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">logging.config</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'conf.json'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">conf</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">json</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">load</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">f</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">...</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">config</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">dictConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">conf</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"Transaction completed normally"</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">INFO : root : Transaction completed normally</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">critical</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"Abnormal termination"</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root CRITICAL Abnormal termination</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="last docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0391"><strong>PEP 391</strong></a> - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging</dt> <dd>PEP written by Vinay Sajip.</dd> </dl> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module"> <h2>PEP 3148: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> module<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new top-level namespace, <em>concurrent</em>. Its first member is a <em>futures</em> package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing threads and processes.</p> <p>The design for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#module-concurrent.futures" title="concurrent.futures: Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code></a> was inspired by the <em>java.util.concurrent</em> package. In that model, a running call and its result are represented by a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> object that abstracts features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls. That object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts, cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.</p> <p>The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for launching and managing calls. The goal of the executors is to make it easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls. They save the effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.</p> <p>Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed. This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its own competing strategy for resource management.</p> <p>Both classes share a common interface with three methods: <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.submit" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.submit"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">submit()</span></code></a> for scheduling a callable and returning a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Future" title="concurrent.futures.Future"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Future</span></code></a> object; <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.map" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">map()</span></code></a> for scheduling many asynchronous calls at a time, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown" title="concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutdown()</span></code></a> for freeing resources. The class is a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> and can be used in a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement to assure that resources are automatically released when currently pending futures are done executing.</p> <p>A simple of example of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ThreadPoolExecutor</span></code></a> is a launch of four parallel threads for copying files:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">concurrent.futures</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">concurrent</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">futures</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ThreadPoolExecutor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">max_workers</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'src1.txt'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dest1.txt'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'src2.txt'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dest2.txt'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'src3.txt'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dest3.txt'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">submit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">copy</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'src3.txt'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dest4.txt'</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3148"><strong>PEP 3148</strong></a> - Futures – Execute Computations Asynchronously</dt> <dd>PEP written by Brian Quinlan.</dd> </dl> <p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#threadpoolexecutor-example"><span class="std std-ref">Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads</span></a>, an example using threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.</p> <p class="last"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#processpoolexecutor-example"><span class="std std-ref">Code for computing prime numbers in parallel</span></a>, an example demonstrating <a class="reference internal" href="../library/concurrent.futures.html#concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor" title="concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ProcessPoolExecutor</span></code></a>.</p> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories"> <h2>PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Python’s scheme for caching bytecode in <em>.pyc</em> files did not work well in environments with multiple Python interpreters. If one interpreter encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the benefits of caching.</p> <p>The issue of “pyc fights” has become more pronounced as it has become commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of Python. These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as Unladen Swallow.</p> <p>To solve this problem, Python’s import machinery has been extended to use distinct filenames for each interpreter. Instead of Python 3.2 and Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called “mymodule.pyc”, they will now look for “mymodule.cpython-32.pyc”, “mymodule.cpython-33.pyc”, and “mymodule.unladen10.pyc”. And to prevent all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the <em>pyc</em> files are now collected in a “__pycache__” directory stored under the package directory.</p> <p>Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a few aspects that are visible to the programmer:</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">Imported modules now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#__cached__" title="__cached__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__cached__</span></code></a> attribute which stores the name of the actual file that was imported:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">collections</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__cached__</span> <span class="go">'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'</span> </pre></div> </div> </li> <li><p class="first">The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">imp</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_tag</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">'cpython-32'</span> </pre></div> </div> </li> <li><p class="first">Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file now need to be smarter. It is no longer sufficient to simply strip the “c” from a “.pyc” filename. Instead, use the new functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement. (deprecated)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imp</span></code></a> module:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">source_from_cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">imp</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_from_source</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'</span> </pre></div> </div> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/py_compile.html#module-py_compile" title="py_compile: Generate byte-code files from Python source files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">py_compile</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> modules have been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target directory. The command-line invocation of <em>compileall</em> has new options: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-i</span></code> for specifying a list of files and directories to compile and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> which causes bytecode files to be written to their legacy location rather than <em>__pycache__</em>.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#module-importlib.abc" title="importlib.abc: Abstract base classes related to import"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.abc</span></code></a> module has been updated with new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base classes</span></a> for loading bytecode files. The obsolete ABCs, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLoader</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyPycLoader</span></code>, have been deprecated (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included with the documentation).</p> </li> </ul> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="last docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3147"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a> - PYC Repository Directories</dt> <dd>PEP written by Barry Warsaw.</dd> </dl> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files"> <h2>PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be co-located. This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each version.</p> <p>The common directory is “pyshared” and the file names are made distinct by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython, etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags (such as “d” for debug, “m” for pymalloc, “u” for wide-unicode). For an arbitrary package “foo”, you may see these files when the distribution package is installed:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">share</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">pyshared</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cpython</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">32</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">so</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">share</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">pyshared</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">foo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cpython</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">33</span><span class="n">md</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">so</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> module:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sysconfig</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'SOABI'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># find the version tag</span> <span class="go">'cpython-32mu'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sysconfig</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_config_var</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'EXT_SUFFIX'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># find the full filename extension</span> <span class="go">'.cpython-32mu.so'</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="last docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3149"><strong>PEP 3149</strong></a> - ABI Version Tagged .so Files</dt> <dd>PEP written by Barry Warsaw.</dd> </dl> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1"> <h2>PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1<a class="headerlink" href="#pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled by the WSGI protocol. The challenge is that string handling in Python 3 is most conveniently handled with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> type even though the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.</p> <p>The PEP differentiates so-called <em>native strings</em> that are used for request/response headers and metadata versus <em>byte strings</em> which are used for the bodies of requests and responses.</p> <p>The <em>native strings</em> are always of type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> but are restricted to code points between <em>U+0000</em> through <em>U+00FF</em> which are translatable to bytes using <em>Latin-1</em> encoding. These strings are used for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response headers and statuses in the <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_response()</span></code> function. They must follow <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.html"><strong>RFC 2616</strong></a> with respect to encoding. That is, they must either be <em>ISO-8859-1</em> characters or use <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> MIME encoding.</p> <p>For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the salient points:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change is needed.</li> <li>If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1. For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h.encode('utf-8')</span></code> now needs to convert from bytes to native strings using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')</span></code>.</li> <li>Values yielded by an application or sent using the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">write()</span></code> method must be byte strings. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">start_response()</span></code> function and environ must use native strings. The two cannot be mixed.</li> </ul> <p>For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native strings even though the underlying platform may have a different convention. To bridge this gap, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#module-wsgiref" title="wsgiref: WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref</span></code></a> module has a new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/wsgiref.html#wsgiref.handlers.read_environ" title="wsgiref.handlers.read_environ"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wsgiref.handlers.read_environ()</span></code></a> for transcoding CGI variables from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a> into native strings and returning a new dictionary.</p> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <dl class="last docutils"> <dt><span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3333"><strong>PEP 3333</strong></a> - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1</dt> <dd>PEP written by Phillip Eby.</dd> </dl> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="other-language-changes"> <h2>Other Language Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#other-language-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">String formatting for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">format()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> gained new capabilities for the format character <strong>#</strong>. Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it caused the output to be prefixed with ‘0b’, ‘0o’, or ‘0x’ respectively. Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal, causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no digits follow it.</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'#o'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'0o24'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">12.34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'#5.0f'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">' 12.'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7094">bpo-7094</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">There is also a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format_map" title="str.format_map"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format_map()</span></code></a> method that extends the capabilities of the existing <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> method by accepting arbitrary <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-mapping"><span class="xref std std-term">mapping</span></a> objects. This new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of Python’s many dictionary-like objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.defaultdict" title="collections.defaultdict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">defaultdict</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shelve.html#shelve.Shelf" title="shelve.Shelf"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Shelf</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>, or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dbm.html#module-dbm" title="dbm: Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dbm</span></code></a>. It is also useful with custom <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> subclasses that normalize keys before look-up or that supply a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__missing__" title="object.__missing__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__missing__()</span></code></a> method for unknown keys:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shelve</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shelve</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'tmp.shl'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="s1">'The </span><span class="si">{project_name}</span><span class="s1"> status is </span><span class="si">{status}</span><span class="s1"> as of </span><span class="si">{date}</span><span class="s1">'</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">LowerCasedDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">dict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="fm">__getitem__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">lcd</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">LowerCasedDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">part</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'widgets'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">quantity</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="s1">'There are </span><span class="si">{QUANTITY}</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">{Part}</span><span class="s1"> in stock'</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lcd</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'There are 10 widgets in stock'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">PlaceholderDict</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">dict</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__missing__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">'<</span><span class="si">{}</span><span class="s1">>'</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">key</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="s1">'Hello </span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s1">, welcome to </span><span class="si">{location}</span><span class="s1">'</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">format_map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PlaceholderDict</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="go">'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'</span> </pre></div> </div> </li> </ul> <blockquote> <div>(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6081">bpo-6081</a>.)</div></blockquote> <ul> <li><p class="first">The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-q</span></code>, to prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed in the interactive mode. The option can be introspected using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.flags" title="sys.flags"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.flags</span></code></a> attribute:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -q <span class="gp">></span>>> sys.flags <span class="go">sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,</span> <span class="go">optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,</span> <span class="go">ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1772833">bpo-1772833</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a> function works by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr()</span></code></a> and detecting whether an exception is raised. This technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattr__" title="object.__getattr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattr__()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__getattribute__" title="object.__getattribute__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__getattribute__()</span></code></a> which would otherwise be absent from the class dictionary. Formerly, <em>hasattr</em> would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors. Now, <em>hasattr</em> has been tightened to only catch <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#AttributeError" title="AttributeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">AttributeError</span></code></a> and let other exceptions pass through:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="nd">@property</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">1</span> <span class="o">//</span> <span class="mi">0</span> <span class="gp">...</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">hasattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'f'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span> <span class="c">...</span> <span class="gr">ZeroDivisionError</span>: <span class="n">integer division or modulo by zero</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9666">bpo-9666</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> of a float or complex number is now the same as its <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a>. Previously, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> form was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the shortest possible <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> is displayed by default:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'3.141592653589793'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">math</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pi</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'3.141592653589793'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9337">bpo-9337</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview</span></code></a> objects now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview.release" title="memoryview.release"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">release()</span></code></a> method and they also now support the context management protocol. This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when requesting a buffer from the original object.</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">memoryview</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'abcdefgh'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tolist</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="go">[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Added by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9757">bpo-9757</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">outer</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">inner</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="n">inner</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">x</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>This is now allowed. Remember that the target of an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#except"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">except</span></code></a> clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python 2.6, raised a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#SyntaxError" title="SyntaxError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SyntaxError</span></code></a> with Python 3.1 and now works again:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">print_error</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">e</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">something</span> <span class="k">except</span> <span class="ne">Exception</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">print_error</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># implicit "del e" here</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4617">bpo-4617</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The internal <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">structsequence</span></code> tool now creates subclasses of tuple. This means that C structures like those returned by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.stat" title="os.stat"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.stat()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.gmtime" title="time.gmtime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.gmtime()</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.version_info" title="sys.version_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.version_info</span></code></a> now work like a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a> and now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an argument. This is a big step forward in making the C structures as flexible as their pure Python counterparts:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">isinstance</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">True</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="s1">'Version </span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">.</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">.</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">(</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s1">)'</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">version_info</span> <span class="go">'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented by Benjamin Peterson in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8413">bpo-8413</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Warnings are now easier to control using the <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONWARNINGS</span></code></a> environment variable as an alternative to using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-W</span></code> at the command line:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> <span class="nb">export</span> <span class="nv">PYTHONWARNINGS</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7301">bpo-7301</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">A new warning category, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a>, has been added. It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or cleanup are detected. It is silenced by default in normal release builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/warnings.html#module-warnings" title="warnings: Issue warning messages and control their disposition."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">warnings</span></code></a> module, or on the command line.</p> <p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> is issued at interpreter shutdown if the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.garbage" title="gc.garbage"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.garbage</span></code></a> list isn’t empty, and if <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gc.html#gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE" title="gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE</span></code></a> is set, all uncollectable objects are printed. This is meant to make the programmer aware that their code contains object finalization issues.</p> <p>A <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ResourceWarning" title="ResourceWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ResourceWarning</span></code></a> is also issued when a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> is destroyed without having been explicitly closed. While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor), the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues, especially under Windows. Here is an example of enabling the warning from the command line:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -q -Wdefault <span class="gp">></span>>> <span class="nv">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> open<span class="o">(</span><span class="s2">"foo"</span>, <span class="s2">"wb"</span><span class="o">)</span> <span class="gp">></span>>> del f <span class="go">__main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'></span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10093">bpo-10093</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue477863">bpo-477863</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> objects now support <em>index</em> and <em>count</em> methods. This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Sequence</span></code> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a>. As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In addition, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">range</span></code></a> objects now support slicing and negative indices, even with values larger than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.maxsize" title="sys.maxsize"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.maxsize</span></code></a>. This makes <em>range</em> more interoperable with lists:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">1</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">5</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">10</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">:</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">range(0, 10, 2)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9213">bpo-9213</a>, by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2690">bpo-2690</a>, and by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10889">bpo-10889</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#callable" title="callable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">callable()</span></code></a> builtin function from Py2.x was resurrected. It provides a concise, readable alternative to using an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> in an expression like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Callable)</span></code>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">callable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">max</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">True</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">callable</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">False</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10518">bpo-10518</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Python’s import mechanism can now load modules installed in directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name. This solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with non-ASCII characters in their usernames.</p> </li> </ul> <blockquote> <div>(Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9425">bpo-9425</a>.)</div></blockquote> </div> <div class="section" id="new-improved-and-deprecated-modules"> <h2>New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Python’s standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts and quality improvements.</p> <p>The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> module, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> modules now work correctly with the bytes/text model in Python 3. For the first time, there is correct handling of messages with mixed encodings.</p> <p>Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention to encodings and text versus bytes issues. In particular, interactions with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.</p> <p>Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support for <em>SSL</em> connections and security certificates.</p> <p>In addition, more classes now implement a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> to support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement.</p> <div class="section" id="email"> <h3>email<a class="headerlink" href="#email" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The usability of the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package in Python 3 has been mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray. The problem was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> rather than <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> text, and they may contain multiple encodings within a single email. So, the email package had to be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">New functions <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_bytes" title="email.message_from_bytes"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_from_bytes()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.message_from_binary_file" title="email.message_from_binary_file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">message_from_binary_file()</span></code></a>, and new classes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesFeedParser" title="email.parser.BytesFeedParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesFeedParser</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.parser.html#email.parser.BytesParser" title="email.parser.BytesParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesParser</span></code></a> allow binary message data to be parsed into model objects.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Given bytes input to the model, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message.get_payload" title="email.message.Message.get_payload"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_payload()</span></code></a> will by default decode a message body that has a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of <em>8bit</em> using the charset specified in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Given bytes input to the model, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#email.generator.Generator" title="email.generator.Generator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Generator</span></code></a> will convert message bodies that have a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of <em>8bit</em> to instead have a <em>7bit</em> <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em>.</p> <p>Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>-encoded using the <em>unknown-8bit</em> character set.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">A new class <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.generator.html#email.generator.BytesGenerator" title="email.generator.BytesGenerator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BytesGenerator</span></code></a> produces bytes as output, preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the input used to build the model, including message bodies with a <em class="mailheader">Content-Transfer-Encoding</em> of <em>8bit</em>.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#module-smtplib" title="smtplib: SMTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">smtplib</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP" title="smtplib.SMTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SMTP</span></code></a> class now accepts a byte string for the <em>msg</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.sendmail" title="smtplib.SMTP.sendmail"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sendmail()</span></code></a> method, and a new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/smtplib.html#smtplib.SMTP.send_message" title="smtplib.SMTP.send_message"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">send_message()</span></code></a> accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.compat32-message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object and can optionally obtain the <em>from_addr</em> and <em>to_addrs</em> addresses directly from the object.</p> </li> </ul> <p>(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4661">bpo-4661</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10321">bpo-10321</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="elementtree"> <h3>elementtree<a class="headerlink" href="#elementtree" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> package and its <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.cElementTree</span></code> counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.</p> <p>Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist()</span></code></a> which builds an XML document from a sequence of fragments</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace()</span></code></a> for registering a global namespace prefix</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist()</span></code></a> for string representation including all sublists</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend()</span></code></a> for appending a sequence of zero or more elements</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind()</span></code></a> searches an element and subelements</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext()</span></code></a> creates a text iterator over an element and its subelements</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end()</span></code></a> closes the current element</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype()</span></code></a> handles a doctype declaration</li> </ul> <p>Two methods have been deprecated:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()</span></code> use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list(elem)</span></code> instead.</li> <li><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()</span></code> use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Element.iter</span></code> instead.</li> </ul> <p>For details of the update, see <a class="reference external" href="http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm">Introducing ElementTree</a> on Fredrik Lundh’s website.</p> <p>(Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6472">bpo-6472</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="functools"> <h3>functools<a class="headerlink" href="#functools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module includes a new decorator for caching function calls. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.lru_cache" title="functools.lru_cache"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.lru_cache()</span></code></a> can save repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are expected to be the same.</p> <p>For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query function can save database accesses for popular searches:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">functools</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nd">@functools</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lru_cache</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">maxsize</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">300</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_phone_number</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conn</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cursor</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">execute</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">,))</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fetchone</span><span class="p">()[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">name</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">user_requests</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># cached lookup</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_info</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the cache can be cleared with:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cache_clear</span><span class="p">()</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245">recipe 498245</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479">recipe 577479</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10586">bpo-10586</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10593">bpo-10593</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.wraps" title="functools.wraps"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.wraps()</span></code></a> decorator now adds a <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__wrapped__</span></code> attribute pointing to the original callable function. This allows wrapped functions to be introspected. It also copies <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__annotations__</span></code> if defined. And now it also gracefully skips over missing attributes such as <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__doc__</span></code> which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.</p> <p>In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the original function:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">get_phone_number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">get_phone_number</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">__wrapped__</span> <span class="c1"># uncached function</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9567">bpo-9567</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3445">bpo-3445</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8814">bpo-8814</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.total_ordering()</span></code></a> will use existing equality and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.</p> <p>For example, supplying <em>__eq__</em> and <em>__lt__</em> will enable <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.total_ordering" title="functools.total_ordering"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">total_ordering()</span></code></a> to fill-in <em>__le__</em>, <em>__gt__</em> and <em>__ge__</em>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@total_ordering</span> <span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Student</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__eq__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__lt__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">((</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lastname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">firstname</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">lower</span><span class="p">()))</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>With the <em>total_ordering</em> decorator, the remaining comparison methods are filled in automatically.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools.cmp_to_key()</span></code></a> function converts an old-style comparison function to modern <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="c1"># locale-aware sort order</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">iterable</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">cmp_to_key</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">locale</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strcoll</span><span class="p">))</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the <a class="reference external" href="https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/">Sorting HowTo</a> tutorial.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="itertools"> <h3>itertools<a class="headerlink" href="#itertools" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code></a> function modeled on APL’s <em>scan</em> operator and Numpy’s <em>accumulate</em> function:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">itertools</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">accumulate</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">50</span><span class="p">]))</span> <span class="go">[8, 10, 60]</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">prob_dist</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">0.1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">0.3</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">accumulate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">prob_dist</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># cumulative probability distribution</span> <span class="go">[0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>For an example using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools.accumulate" title="itertools.accumulate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accumulate()</span></code></a>, see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random-examples"><span class="std std-ref">examples for the random module</span></a>.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="collections"> <h3>collections<a class="headerlink" href="#collections" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter" title="collections.Counter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.Counter</span></code></a> class now has two forms of in-place subtraction, the existing <em>-=</em> operator for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic">saturating subtraction</a> and the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.Counter.subtract" title="collections.Counter.subtract"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subtract()</span></code></a> method for regular subtraction. The former is suitable for <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset">multisets</a> which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases that allow negative counts:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Counter</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">-=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># saturating subtraction</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="go">Counter({'dogs': 3})</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Counter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">tally</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">subtract</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">dogs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">cats</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># regular subtraction</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">tally</span> <span class="go">Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict" title="collections.OrderedDict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.OrderedDict</span></code></a> class has a new method <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end" title="collections.OrderedDict.move_to_end"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">move_to_end()</span></code></a> which takes an existing key and moves it to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.</p> <p>The default is to move an item to the last position. This is equivalent of renewing an entry with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">od[k]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">od.pop(k)</span></code>.</p> <p>A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries. For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently accessed.</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">OrderedDict</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fromkeys</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="s1">'a'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'b'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'X'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'d'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'e'</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">move_to_end</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'X'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">d</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque" title="collections.deque"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">collections.deque</span></code></a> class grew two new methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.count" title="collections.deque.count"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">count()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/collections.html#collections.deque.reverse" title="collections.deque.reverse"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse()</span></code></a> that make them more substitutable for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> objects:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">collections</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">deque</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">deque</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'simsalabim'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">count</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'s'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">2</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">reverse</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">d</span> <span class="go">deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="threading"> <h3>threading<a class="headerlink" href="#threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#module-threading" title="threading: Thread-based parallelism."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading</span></code></a> module has a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Barrier</span></code></a> synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them have reached a common barrier point. Barriers are useful for making sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of the predecessor tasks are complete.</p> <p>Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads. This is a generalization of a <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous">Rendezvous</a> which is defined for only two threads.</p> <p>Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Barrier" title="threading.Barrier"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Barrier</span></code></a> objects are suitable for use in loops. The separate <em>filling</em> and <em>draining</em> phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of them can loop back and re-enter the barrier. The barrier fully resets after each cycle.</p> <p>Example of using barriers:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">threading</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Barrier</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Thread</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_votes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="n">ballots</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conduct_election</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">all_polls_closed</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># do not count until all polls are closed</span> <span class="n">totals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">summarize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ballots</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">publish</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">totals</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">all_polls_closed</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Barrier</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sites</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">site</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">sites</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">Thread</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">target</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">get_votes</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">,))</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">()</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be counted at any polling site until all polls are closed. Notice how a solution with a barrier is similar to one with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Thread.join" title="threading.Thread.join"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Thread.join()</span></code></a>, but the threads stay alive and continue to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.</p> <p>If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be created with an optional <em>timeout</em> parameter. Then if the timeout period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point, all waiting threads are released and a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.BrokenBarrierError" title="threading.BrokenBarrierError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BrokenBarrierError</span></code></a> exception is raised:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">get_votes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="n">ballots</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">conduct_election</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">all_polls_closed</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wait</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timeout</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">midnight</span> <span class="o">-</span> <span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">BrokenBarrierError</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">lockbox</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">seal_ballots</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ballots</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">queue</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">put</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">lockbox</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">totals</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">summarize</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ballots</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">publish</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">site</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">totals</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule. If some election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.</p> <p>See <a class="reference external" href="https://parlab.eecs.berkeley.edu/wiki/_media/patterns/paraplop_g1_3.pdf">Barrier Synchronization Patterns</a> for more examples of how barriers can be used in parallel computing. Also, there is a simple but thorough explanation of barriers in <a class="reference external" href="http://greenteapress.com/semaphores/downey08semaphores.pdf">The Little Book of Semaphores</a>, <em>section 3.6</em>.</p> <p>(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey Yasskin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8777">bpo-8777</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="datetime-and-time"> <h3>datetime and time<a class="headerlink" href="#datetime-and-time" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module has a new type <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timezone" title="datetime.timezone"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timezone</span></code></a> that implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.tzinfo" title="datetime.tzinfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tzinfo</span></code></a> interface by returning a fixed UTC offset and timezone name. This makes it easier to create timezone-aware datetime objects:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">datetime</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">datetime</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">timezone</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">now</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">timezone</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">utc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">datetime</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strptime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"01/01/2000 12:00 +0000"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"%m/</span><span class="si">%d</span><span class="s2">/%Y %H:%M %z"</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)</span> </pre></div> </div> </li> <li><p class="first">Also, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects can now be multiplied by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and divided by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> objects. And <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.timedelta" title="datetime.timedelta"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">timedelta</span></code></a> objects can now divide one another.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#datetime.date.strftime" title="datetime.date.strftime"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime.date.strftime()</span></code></a> method is no longer restricted to years after 1900. The new supported year range is from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the interpretation has been governed by <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code>. The default is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> which means that for a two-digit year, the century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%y</span></code> strptime format.</p> <p>Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will emit a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#DeprecationWarning" title="DeprecationWarning"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DeprecationWarning</span></code></a>. Instead, it is recommended that <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code> be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> so that large date ranges can be used without guesswork:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">warnings</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">warnings</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">resetwarnings</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># remove the default warning filters</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept2dyear</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">True</span> <span class="c1"># guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="go">Warning (from warnings module):</span> <span class="go"> ...</span> <span class="go">DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.</span> <span class="go">'Fri Jan 1 12:34:56 2011'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept2dyear</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="kc">False</span> <span class="c1"># use the full range of allowable dates</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">asctime</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="mi">11</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="go">'Fri Jan 1 12:34:56 11'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges. When <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.accept2dyear</span></code> is false, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.asctime" title="time.asctime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.asctime()</span></code></a> function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.mktime" title="time.mktime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.mktime()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/time.html#time.strftime" title="time.strftime"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">time.strftime()</span></code></a> functions will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating system functions.</p> </li> </ul> <p>(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1289118">bpo-1289118</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5094">bpo-5094</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6641">bpo-6641</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2706">bpo-2706</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1777412">bpo-1777412</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8013">bpo-8013</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10827">bpo-10827</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="math"> <h3>math<a class="headerlink" href="#math" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#module-math" title="math: Mathematical functions (sin() etc.)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">math</span></code></a> module has been updated with six new functions inspired by the C99 standard.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.isfinite" title="math.isfinite"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isfinite()</span></code></a> function provides a reliable and fast way to detect special values. It returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> for regular numbers and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> for <em>Nan</em> or <em>Infinity</em>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">isfinite</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">isfinite</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">123</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">4.56</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Nan'</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="nb">float</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Inf'</span><span class="p">))]</span> <span class="go">[True, True, False, False]</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.expm1" title="math.expm1"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">expm1()</span></code></a> function computes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">e**x-1</span></code> for small values of <em>x</em> without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the subtraction of nearly equal quantities:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">expm1</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">expm1</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">0.013671875</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x</span> <span class="go">0.013765762467652909</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erf" title="math.erf"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erf()</span></code></a> function computes a probability integral or <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function">Gaussian error function</a>. The complementary error function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.erfc" title="math.erfc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">erfc()</span></code></a>, is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">1</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">erf(x)</span></code>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">erfc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">sqrt</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation</span> <span class="go">0.682689492137086</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">erfc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="c1"># portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation</span> <span class="go">0.31731050786291404</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">erf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">erfc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="go">1.0</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.gamma" title="math.gamma"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gamma()</span></code></a> function is a continuous extension of the factorial function. See <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function</a> for details. Because the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of <em>x</em>, so there is also a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/math.html#math.lgamma" title="math.lgamma"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">lgamma()</span></code></a> function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma function:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">math</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">gamma</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">lgamma</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">gamma</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">7.0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># six factorial</span> <span class="go">720.0</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">lgamma</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">801.0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># log(800 factorial)</span> <span class="go">4551.950730698041</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="abc"> <h3>abc<a class="headerlink" href="#abc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#module-abc" title="abc: Abstract base classes according to PEP 3119."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abc</span></code></a> module now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractclassmethod" title="abc.abstractclassmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractclassmethod()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/abc.html#abc.abstractstaticmethod" title="abc.abstractstaticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">abstractstaticmethod()</span></code></a>.</p> <p>These tools make it possible to define an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> that requires a particular <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">classmethod()</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">staticmethod()</span></code></a> to be implemented:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Temperature</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">metaclass</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ABCMeta</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="nd">@abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abstractclassmethod</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">from_fahrenheit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span> <span class="nd">@abc</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">abstractclassmethod</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">from_celsius</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">cls</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">t</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="o">...</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5867">bpo-5867</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="io"> <h3>io<a class="headerlink" href="#io" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BytesIO" title="io.BytesIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BytesIO</span></code></a> has a new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BytesIO.getbuffer" title="io.BytesIO.getbuffer"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getbuffer()</span></code></a>, which provides functionality similar to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#memoryview" title="memoryview"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">memoryview()</span></code></a>. It creates an editable view of the data without making a copy. The buffer’s random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to in-place editing:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">REC_LEN</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LOC_START</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">LOC_LEN</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">34</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">11</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">change_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">record_number</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">location</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">start</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">record_number</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">REC_LEN</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">LOC_START</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">start</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">LOC_LEN</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">location</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">io</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">byte_stream</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">io</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">BytesIO</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'G3805 storeroom Main chassis '</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'X7899 shipping Reserve cog '</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'L6988 receiving Primary sprocket'</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">buffer</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">byte_stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getbuffer</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">change_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'warehouse '</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">change_location</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">buffer</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'showroom '</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">byte_stream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getvalue</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="go">b'G3805 showroom Main chassis '</span> <span class="go">b'X7899 warehouse Reserve cog '</span> <span class="go">b'L6988 receiving Primary sprocket'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5506">bpo-5506</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="reprlib"> <h3>reprlib<a class="headerlink" href="#reprlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>When writing a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> method for a custom container, it is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the container itself. Python’s builtin objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> handle self-reference by displaying “…” in the recursive part of the representation string.</p> <p>To help write such <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> methods, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/reprlib.html#module-reprlib" title="reprlib: Alternate repr() implementation with size limits."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reprlib</span></code></a> module has a new decorator, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/reprlib.html#reprlib.recursive_repr" title="reprlib.recursive_repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">recursive_repr()</span></code></a>, for detecting recursive calls to <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__repr__" title="object.__repr__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__repr__()</span></code></a> and substituting a placeholder string instead:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">MyList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">list</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="nd">@recursive_repr</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">__repr__</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="s1">'<'</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">'|'</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">'>'</span> <span class="gp">...</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">MyList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'abc'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">m</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'x'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go"><'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'></span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9826">bpo-9826</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9840">bpo-9840</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="logging"> <h3>logging<a class="headerlink" href="#logging" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#module-logging" title="logging: Flexible event logging system for applications."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging</span></code></a> package has many other improvements.</p> <p>The logging documentation has been augmented by a <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-basic-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">basic tutorial</span></a>, an <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging.html#logging-advanced-tutorial"><span class="std std-ref">advanced tutorial</span></a>, and a <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/logging-cookbook.html#logging-cookbook"><span class="std std-ref">cookbook</span></a> of logging recipes. These documents are the fastest way to learn about logging.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.basicConfig" title="logging.basicConfig"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.basicConfig()</span></code></a> set-up function gained a <em>style</em> argument to support three different types of string formatting. It defaults to “%” for traditional %-formatting, can be set to “{” for the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str.format" title="str.format"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str.format()</span></code></a> style, or can be set to “$” for the shell-style formatting provided by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#string.Template" title="string.Template"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.Template</span></code></a>. The following three configurations are equivalent:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">logging</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">basicConfig</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'%'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="si">%(name)s</span><span class="s2"> -> </span><span class="si">%(levelname)s</span><span class="s2">: </span><span class="si">%(message)s</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'{'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="si">{name}</span><span class="s2"> -> </span><span class="si">{levelname}</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">{message}</span><span class="s2">"</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">style</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'$'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">format</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"$name -> $levelname: $message"</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is now a default configuration using a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.handlers.html#logging.StreamHandler" title="logging.StreamHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StreamHandler</span></code></a> directed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.stderr" title="sys.stderr"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.stderr</span></code></a> for events of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">WARNING</span></code> level or higher. Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the value of <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.raiseExceptions</span></code>. The new default handler is stored in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.lastResort" title="logging.lastResort"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">logging.lastResort</span></code></a>.</p> <p>The use of filters has been simplified. Instead of creating a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/logging.html#logging.Filter" title="logging.Filter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Filter</span></code></a> object, the predicate can be any Python callable that returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>.</p> <p>There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and simplify configuration. See the module documentation for a full listing of changes in Python 3.2.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="csv"> <h3>csv<a class="headerlink" href="#csv" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#module-csv" title="csv: Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv</span></code></a> module now supports a new dialect, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.unix_dialect" title="csv.unix_dialect"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unix_dialect</span></code></a>, which applies quoting for all fields and a traditional Unix style with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'\n'</span></code> as the line terminator. The registered dialect name is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unix</span></code>.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter" title="csv.DictWriter"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">csv.DictWriter</span></code></a> has a new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/csv.html#csv.DictWriter.writeheader" title="csv.DictWriter.writeheader"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">writeheader()</span></code></a> for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">csv</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">w</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">csv</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">DictWriter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">stdout</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'name'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dept'</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="n">dialect</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'unix'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writeheader</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">"name","dept"</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">w</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">writerows</span><span class="p">([</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">'name'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">'tom'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dept'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">'accounting'</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">'name'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">'susan'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'dept'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">'Salesl'</span><span class="p">}])</span> <span class="go">"tom","accounting"</span> <span class="go">"susan","sales"</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5975">bpo-5975</a>, and the new method suggested by Ed Abraham in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1537721">bpo-1537721</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="contextlib"> <h3>contextlib<a class="headerlink" href="#contextlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.ContextDecorator" title="contextlib.ContextDecorator"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ContextDecorator</span></code></a> that is helpful for creating a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-context-manager"><span class="xref std std-term">context manager</span></a> that does double duty as a function decorator.</p> <p>As a convenience, this new functionality is used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> so that no extra effort is needed to support both roles.</p> <p>The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers. Context managers wrap a group of statements using a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, and function decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function. So, occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action wrapper that can be used in either role.</p> <p>For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/contextlib.html#contextlib.contextmanager" title="contextlib.contextmanager"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextmanager()</span></code></a> provides both capabilities in a single definition:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">contextlib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">contextmanager</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">logging</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">basicConfig</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">level</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">INFO</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="nd">@contextmanager</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Entering: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="n">logging</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">info</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Exiting: </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s1">'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'widget loader'</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Some time consuming activity goes here'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">load_widget</span><span class="p">()</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="nd">@track_entry_and_exit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'widget loader'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">activity</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Some time consuming activity goes here'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">load_widget</span><span class="p">()</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the technique. Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an argument usable by a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement, but there is no parallel for function decorators.</p> <p>In the above example, there is not a clean way for the <em>track_entry_and_exit</em> context manager to return a logging instance for use in the body of enclosed statements.</p> <p>(Contributed by Michael Foord in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9110">bpo-9110</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="decimal-and-fractions"> <h3>decimal and fractions<a class="headerlink" href="#decimal-and-fractions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their actual values are equal (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8188">bpo-8188</a>):</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">assert</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> \ <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"1.5"</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">hash</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">complex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.5</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">))</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.hash_info" title="sys.hash_info"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.hash_info</span></code></a>, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the prime modulus, the hash values for <em>infinity</em> and <em>nan</em>, and the multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hash_info</span> <span class="go">sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>An early decision to limit the inter-operability of various numeric types has been relaxed. It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal('1.1')</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">float('1.1')</span></code> because the latter loses information in the process of constructing the binary float. However, since existing floating point value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to support mixed-type comparisons.</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal.Decimal</span></code></a> constructor now accepts <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> objects directly so there in no longer a need to use the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal.from_float" title="decimal.Decimal.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_float()</span></code></a> method (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8257">bpo-8257</a>).</li> <li>Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal" title="decimal.Decimal"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Decimal</span></code></a> objects can be directly compared with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2531">bpo-2531</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8188">bpo-8188</a>).</li> </ul> <p>Similar changes were made to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction" title="fractions.Fraction"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fractions.Fraction</span></code></a> so that the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_float" title="fractions.Fraction.from_float"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_float()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction.from_decimal" title="fractions.Fraction.from_decimal"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from_decimal()</span></code></a> methods are no longer needed (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8294">bpo-8294</a>):</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">decimal</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Decimal</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fractions</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Fraction</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">Decimal</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">Fraction</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">1.1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Another useful change for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/decimal.html#module-decimal" title="decimal: Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decimal</span></code></a> module is that the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Context.clamp</span></code> attribute is now public. This is useful in creating contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754 (see <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8540">bpo-8540</a>).</p> <p>(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="ftp"> <h3>ftp<a class="headerlink" href="#ftp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP" title="ftplib.FTP"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ftplib.FTP</span></code></a> class now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> exceptions and to close the FTP connection when done:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ftplib</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">FTP</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">FTP</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"ftp1.at.proftpd.org"</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">ftp</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="go"> ftp.login()</span> <span class="go"> ftp.dir()</span> <span class="go">'230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'</span> <span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x 9 ftp ftp 154 May 6 10:43 .</span> <span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x 9 ftp ftp 154 May 6 10:43 ..</span> <span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x 5 ftp ftp 4096 May 6 10:43 CentOS</span> <span class="go">dr-xr-xr-x 3 ftp ftp 18 Jul 10 2008 Fedora</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Other file-like objects such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mmap.html#mmap.mmap" title="mmap.mmap"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mmap.mmap</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/fileinput.html#fileinput.input" title="fileinput.input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fileinput.input()</span></code></a> also grew auto-closing context managers:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">fileinput</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">input</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">files</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'log1.txt'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'log2.txt'</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">process</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4972">bpo-4972</a>, and by Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8046">bpo-8046</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1286">bpo-1286</a>.)</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ftplib.html#ftplib.FTP_TLS" title="ftplib.FTP_TLS"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">FTP_TLS</span></code></a> class now accepts a <em>context</em> parameter, which is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.</p> <p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8806">bpo-8806</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="popen"> <h3>popen<a class="headerlink" href="#popen" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.popen" title="os.popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.popen()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen()</span></code></a> functions now support <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statements for auto-closing of the file descriptors.</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7461">bpo-7461</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10554">bpo-10554</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="select"> <h3>select<a class="headerlink" href="#select" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#module-select" title="select: Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select</span></code></a> module now exposes a new, constant attribute, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.PIPE_BUF" title="select.PIPE_BUF"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PIPE_BUF</span></code></a>, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are guaranteed not to block when <a class="reference internal" href="../library/select.html#select.select" title="select.select"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">select.select()</span></code></a> says a pipe is ready for writing.</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">select</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PIPE_BUF</span> <span class="go">512</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Available on Unix systems. Patch by Sébastien Sablé in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9862">bpo-9862</a>)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="gzip-and-zipfile"> <h3>gzip and zipfile<a class="headerlink" href="#gzip-and-zipfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile" title="gzip.GzipFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip.GzipFile</span></code></a> now implements the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedIOBase" title="io.BufferedIOBase"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedIOBase</span></code></a> <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class"><span class="xref std std-term">abstract base class</span></a> (except for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">truncate()</span></code>). It also has a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.GzipFile.peek" title="gzip.GzipFile.peek"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">peek()</span></code></a> method and supports unseekable as well as zero-padded file objects.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#module-gzip" title="gzip: Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">gzip</span></code></a> module also gains the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.compress" title="gzip.compress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compress()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/gzip.html#gzip.decompress" title="gzip.decompress"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decompress()</span></code></a> functions for easier in-memory compression and decompression. Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> before compressing and decompressing:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">gzip</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">+=</span> <span class="s1">'and the number of the counting shall be three'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">encode</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="c1"># convert to utf-8</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">89</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">c</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">77</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">gzip</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decompress</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">decode</span><span class="p">()[:</span><span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="c1"># decompress and convert to text</span> <span class="go">'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3488">bpo-3488</a>; and by Antoine Pitrou, Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9962">bpo-9962</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1675951">bpo-1675951</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7471">bpo-7471</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2846">bpo-2846</a>.)</p> <p>Also, the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">zipfile.ZipExtFile</span></code> class was reworked internally to represent files stored inside an archive. The new implementation is significantly faster and can be wrapped in an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.BufferedReader" title="io.BufferedReader"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">io.BufferedReader</span></code></a> object for more speedups. It also solves an issue where interleaved calls to <em>read</em> and <em>readline</em> gave the wrong results.</p> <p>(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7610">bpo-7610</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="tarfile"> <h3>tarfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tarfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile" title="tarfile.TarFile"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarFile</span></code></a> class can now be used as a context manager. In addition, its <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarFile.add" title="tarfile.TarFile.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> method has a new option, <em>filter</em>, that controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file metadata to be edited.</p> <p>The new <em>filter</em> option replaces the older, less flexible <em>exclude</em> parameter which is now deprecated. If specified, the optional <em>filter</em> parameter needs to be a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-keyword-argument"><span class="xref std std-term">keyword argument</span></a>. The user-supplied filter function accepts a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object and returns an updated <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#tarfile.TarInfo" title="tarfile.TarInfo"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TarInfo</span></code></a> object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the function can return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">tarfile</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">glob</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">myfilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isfile</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="c1"># only save real files</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uname</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'monty'</span> <span class="c1"># redact the user name</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">tarinfo</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tarfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'myarchive.tar.gz'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">mode</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'w:gz'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tf</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">glob</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">glob</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'*.txt'</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">tf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">filter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">myfilter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">tf</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501 902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt</span> <span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501 123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt</span> <span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501 3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt</span> <span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501 124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt</span> <span class="go">-rw-r--r-- monty/501 1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6856">bpo-6856</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="hashlib"> <h3>hashlib<a class="headerlink" href="#hashlib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/hashlib.html#module-hashlib" title="hashlib: Secure hash and message digest algorithms."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hashlib</span></code></a> module has two new constant attributes listing the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations and those available on the current implementation:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">hashlib</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">algorithms_guaranteed</span> <span class="go">{'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">hashlib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">algorithms_available</span> <span class="go">{'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',</span> <span class="go">'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',</span> <span class="go">'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',</span> <span class="go">'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Suggested by Carl Chenet in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7418">bpo-7418</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="ast"> <h3>ast<a class="headerlink" href="#ast" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast</span></code></a> module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ast.html#ast.literal_eval" title="ast.literal_eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ast.literal_eval()</span></code></a> function serves as a secure alternative to the builtin <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">eval()</span></code></a> function which is easily abused. Python 3.2 adds <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> literals to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>.</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">ast</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">literal_eval</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">request</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">"{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">literal_eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">{'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">request</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">"os.system('do something harmful')"</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">literal_eval</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">request</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span> <span class="c">...</span> <span class="gr">ValueError</span>: <span class="n">malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10></span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="os"> <h3>os<a class="headerlink" href="#os" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and environment variables. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os</span></code></a> module provides two new functions, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsencode" title="os.fsencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsencode()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.fsdecode" title="os.fsdecode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fsdecode()</span></code></a>, for encoding and decoding filenames:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">os</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">filename</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'Sehenswürdigkeiten'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fsencode</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the environment. If so, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.supports_bytes_environ" title="os.supports_bytes_environ"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.supports_bytes_environ</span></code></a> constant will be true.</p> <p>For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.getenvb" title="os.getenvb"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.getenvb()</span></code></a> function or use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environb" title="os.environb"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environb</span></code></a> which is a bytes version of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.environ" title="os.environ"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.environ</span></code></a>.</p> <p>(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="shutil"> <h3>shutil<a class="headerlink" href="#shutil" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copytree" title="shutil.copytree"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copytree()</span></code></a> function has two new options:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><em>ignore_dangling_symlinks</em>: when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">symlinks=False</span></code> so that the function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink itself. This option will silence the error raised if the file doesn’t exist.</li> <li><em>copy_function</em>: is a callable that will be used to copy files. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.copy2" title="shutil.copy2"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil.copy2()</span></code></a> is used by default.</li> </ul> <p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)</p> <p>In addition, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shutil</span></code></a> module now supports <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#archiving-operations"><span class="std std-ref">archiving operations</span></a> for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles, and bzipped tarfiles. And there are functions for registering additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or custom formats).</p> <p>The principal functions are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.make_archive" title="shutil.make_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make_archive()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/shutil.html#shutil.unpack_archive" title="shutil.unpack_archive"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unpack_archive()</span></code></a>. By default, both operate on the current directory (which can be set by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/os.html#os.chdir" title="os.chdir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">os.chdir()</span></code></a>) and on any sub-directories. The archive filename needs to be specified with a full pathname. The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are left unchanged).</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">shutil</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'mydata'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># change to the source directory</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">make_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'/var/backup/mydata'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="s1">'zip'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># archive the current directory</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">f</span> <span class="c1"># show the name of archive</span> <span class="go">'/var/backup/mydata.zip'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">os</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">chdir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'tmp'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># change to an unpacking</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">unpack_archive</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'/var/backup/mydata.zip'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="c1"># recover the data</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">get_archive_formats</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="c1"># display known formats</span> <span class="go">[('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),</span> <span class="go"> ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),</span> <span class="go"> ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),</span> <span class="go"> ('zip', 'ZIP file')]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">shutil</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">register_archive_format</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="c1"># register a new archive format</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'xz'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">xz</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">compress</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># callable archiving function</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">extra_args</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[(</span><span class="s1">'level'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)],</span> <span class="c1"># arguments to the function</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">description</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'xz compression'</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="sqlite3"> <h3>sqlite3<a class="headerlink" href="#sqlite3" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#module-sqlite3" title="sqlite3: A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3</span></code></a> module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0. It has two new capabilities.</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>The <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.in_transit</span></code> attribute is true if there is an active transaction for uncommitted changes.</li> <li>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension" title="sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sqlite3.html#sqlite3.Connection.load_extension" title="sqlite3.Connection.load_extension"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sqlite3.Connection.load_extension()</span></code></a> methods allows you to load SQLite extensions from “.so” files. One well-known extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.</li> </ul> <p>(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8845">bpo-8845</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="html"> <h3>html<a class="headerlink" href="#html" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>A new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#module-html" title="html: Helpers for manipulating HTML."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">html</span></code></a> module was introduced with only a single function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/html.html#html.escape" title="html.escape"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">escape()</span></code></a>, which is used for escaping reserved characters from HTML markup:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">html</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">html</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">escape</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'x > 2 && x < 7'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'</span> </pre></div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="socket"> <h3>socket<a class="headerlink" href="#socket" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#module-socket" title="socket: Low-level networking interface."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket</span></code></a> module has two new improvements.</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>Socket objects now have a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.socket.detach" title="socket.socket.detach"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">detach()</span></code></a> method which puts the socket into closed state without actually closing the underlying file descriptor. The latter can then be reused for other purposes. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8524">bpo-8524</a>.)</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.create_connection" title="socket.create_connection"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.create_connection()</span></code></a> now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.error" title="socket.error"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></code></a> exceptions and to close the socket when done. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9794">bpo-9794</a>.)</li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="ssl"> <h3>ssl<a class="headerlink" href="#ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module added a number of features to satisfy common requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>A new class, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLContext</span></code></a>, serves as a container for persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates, private keys, and various other options. It includes a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></code></a> for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.</li> <li>A new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.match_hostname" title="ssl.match_hostname"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.match_hostname()</span></code></a>, supports server identity verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules of HTTPS (from <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2818.html"><strong>RFC 2818</strong></a>) which are also suitable for other protocols.</li> <li>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.wrap_socket" title="ssl.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.wrap_socket()</span></code></a> constructor function now takes a <em>ciphers</em> argument. The <em>ciphers</em> string lists the allowed encryption algorithms using the format described in the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT">OpenSSL documentation</a>.</li> <li>When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS protocol, allowing multiple “virtual hosts” using different certificates on a single IP port. This extension is only supported in client mode, and is activated by passing the <em>server_hostname</em> argument to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket" title="ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket()</span></code></a>.</li> <li>Various options have been added to the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#module-ssl" title="ssl: TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl</span></code></a> module, such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2" title="ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">OP_NO_SSLv2</span></code></a> which disables the insecure and obsolete SSLv2 protocol.</li> <li>The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest algorithms. If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are reported as an “unknown algorithm” error.</li> <li>The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the module attributes <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION</span></code></a> (a string), <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO</span></code></a> (a 5-tuple), and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER" title="ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER</span></code></a> (an integer).</li> </ul> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8850">bpo-8850</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1589">bpo-1589</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8322">bpo-8322</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5639">bpo-5639</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4870">bpo-4870</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8484">bpo-8484</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8321">bpo-8321</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="nntp"> <h3>nntp<a class="headerlink" href="#nntp" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and text semantics as well as more practical APIs. These improvements break compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly dysfunctional in itself.</p> <p>Support for secure connections through both implicit (using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP_SSL" title="nntplib.NNTP_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib.NNTP_SSL</span></code></a>) and explicit (using <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#nntplib.NNTP.starttls" title="nntplib.NNTP.starttls"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib.NNTP.starttls()</span></code></a>) TLS has also been added.</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9360">bpo-9360</a> and Andrew Vant in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1926">bpo-1926</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="certificates"> <h3>certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client.HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.HTTPSHandler" title="urllib.request.HTTPSHandler"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.HTTPSHandler</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#urllib.request.urlopen" title="urllib.request.urlopen"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request.urlopen()</span></code></a> now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in public uses of HTTPS.</p> <p>(Added by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9003">bpo-9003</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="imaplib"> <h3>imaplib<a class="headerlink" href="#imaplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added through the new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/imaplib.html#imaplib.IMAP4.starttls" title="imaplib.IMAP4.starttls"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">imaplib.IMAP4.starttls</span></code></a> method.</p> <p>(Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue4471">bpo-4471</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="http-client"> <h3>http.client<a class="headerlink" href="#http-client" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>There were a number of small API improvements in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a> module. The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer supported and the <em>strict</em> parameter is deprecated in all classes.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection" title="http.client.HTTPConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPConnection</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a> classes now have a <em>source_address</em> parameter for a (host, port) tuple indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.</p> <p>Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPSConnection" title="http.client.HTTPSConnection"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">HTTPSConnection</span></code></a>.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.request" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.request"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">request()</span></code></a> method on connection objects allowed an optional <em>body</em> argument so that a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-file-object"><span class="xref std std-term">file object</span></a> could be used to supply the content of the request. Conveniently, the <em>body</em> argument now also accepts an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterable"><span class="xref std std-term">iterable</span></a> object so long as it includes an explicit <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Content-Length</span></code> header. This extended interface is much more flexible than before.</p> <p>To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel" title="http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set_tunnel()</span></code></a> method that sets the host and port for HTTP Connect tunneling.</p> <p>To match the behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>, the HTTP client library now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding. It was already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic. (See work by Armin Ronacher in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10980">bpo-10980</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="unittest"> <h3>unittest<a class="headerlink" href="#unittest" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test failures, and better method names.</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">The command-line call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">python</span> <span class="pre">-m</span> <span class="pre">unittest</span></code> can now accept file paths instead of module names for running specific tests (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10620">bpo-10620</a>). The new test discovery can find tests within packages, locating any test importable from the top-level directory. The top-level directory can be specified with the <cite>-t</cite> option, a pattern for matching files with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-p</span></code>, and a directory to start discovery with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-s</span></code>:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Michael Foord.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest.case.TestCase</span></code> class can now be instantiated without arguments:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">unittest</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">TestCase</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">TestCase</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Michael Foord.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> module has two new methods, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarns" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarns"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarns()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertWarnsRegex()</span></code></a> to verify that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertWarns</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="ne">DeprecationWarning</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="n">legacy_function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'XYZ'</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9754">bpo-9754</a>.)</p> <p>Another new method, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertCountEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertCountEqual()</span></code></a> is used to compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number of occurrences regardless of order):</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">test_anagram</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">assertCountEqual</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'algorithm'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'logarithm'</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce meaningful diagnostics when a test fails. When possible, the failure is recorded along with a diff of the output. This is especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs. However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.maxDiff" title="unittest.TestCase.maxDiff"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">maxDiff</span></code></a> attribute that sets maximum length of diffs displayed.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number of clean-ups.</p> <p>For example, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertRegex" title="unittest.TestCase.assertRegex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegex()</span></code></a> is the new name for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertRegexpMatches()</span></code> which was misnamed because the test uses <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.search" title="re.search"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.search()</span></code></a>, not <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re.match" title="re.match"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re.match()</span></code></a>. Other methods using regular expressions are now named using short form “Regex” in preference to “Regexp” – this matches the names used in other unittest implementations, matches Python’s old name for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being deprecated in favor of the preferred names:</p> <blockquote> <div><table border="1" class="docutils"> <colgroup> <col width="51%" /> <col width="49%" /> </colgroup> <thead valign="bottom"> <tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Old Name</th> <th class="head">Preferred Name</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody valign="top"> <tr class="row-even"><td><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assert_()</span></code></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertTrue" title="unittest.TestCase.assertTrue"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertTrue()</span></code></a></td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEquals()</span></code></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertEqual()</span></code></a></td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEquals()</span></code></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotEqual()</span></code></a></td> </tr> <tr class="row-odd"><td><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEquals()</span></code></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertAlmostEqual()</span></code></a></td> </tr> <tr class="row-even"><td><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEquals()</span></code></td> <td><a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual" title="unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertNotAlmostEqual()</span></code></a></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div></blockquote> <p>Likewise, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase.fail*</span></code> methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are expected to be removed in Python 3.3. Also see the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#deprecated-aliases"><span class="std std-ref">Deprecated aliases</span></a> section in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unittest.html#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unittest</span></code></a> documentation.</p> <p>(Contributed by Ezio Melotti; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9424">bpo-9424</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">assertDictContainsSubset()</span></code> method was deprecated because it was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order. This created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1,</span> <span class="pre">'b':2},</span> <span class="pre">{'a':1})</span></code> would fail.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="random"> <h3>random<a class="headerlink" href="#random" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The integer methods in the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module now do a better job of producing uniform distributions. Previously, they computed selections with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int(n*random())</span></code> which had a slight bias whenever <em>n</em> was not a power of two. Now, multiple selections are made from a range up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls within the range <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span> <span class="pre"><=</span> <span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre"><</span> <span class="pre">n</span></code>. The functions and methods affected are <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.randrange" title="random.randrange"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randrange()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.randint" title="random.randint"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">randint()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.choice" title="random.choice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">choice()</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.shuffle" title="random.shuffle"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">shuffle()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.sample" title="random.sample"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sample()</span></code></a>.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9025">bpo-9025</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="poplib"> <h3>poplib<a class="headerlink" href="#poplib" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/poplib.html#poplib.POP3_SSL" title="poplib.POP3_SSL"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">POP3_SSL</span></code></a> class now accepts a <em>context</em> parameter, which is a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLContext" title="ssl.SSLContext"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLContext</span></code></a> object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.</p> <p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8807">bpo-8807</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="asyncore"> <h3>asyncore<a class="headerlink" href="#asyncore" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher" title="asyncore.dispatcher"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.dispatcher</span></code></a> now provides a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted" title="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accepted"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_accepted()</span></code></a> method returning a <cite>(sock, addr)</cite> pair which is called when a connection has actually been established with a new remote endpoint. This is supposed to be used as a replacement for old <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept" title="asyncore.dispatcher.handle_accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">handle_accept()</span></code></a> and avoids the user to call <a class="reference internal" href="../library/asyncore.html#asyncore.dispatcher.accept" title="asyncore.dispatcher.accept"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">accept()</span></code></a> directly.</p> <p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6706">bpo-6706</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="tempfile"> <h3>tempfile<a class="headerlink" href="#tempfile" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tempfile</span></code></a> module has a new context manager, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tempfile.html#tempfile.TemporaryDirectory" title="tempfile.TemporaryDirectory"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TemporaryDirectory</span></code></a> which provides easy deterministic cleanup of temporary directories:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="n">tempfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">TemporaryDirectory</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">tmpdirname</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'created temporary dir:'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">tmpdirname</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5178">bpo-5178</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="inspect"> <h3>inspect<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module has a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getgeneratorstate" title="inspect.getgeneratorstate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getgeneratorstate()</span></code></a> to easily identify the current state of a generator-iterator:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">inspect</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">gen</span><span class="p">():</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">yield</span> <span class="s1">'demo'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">g</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">gen</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'GEN_CREATED'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'demo'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'GEN_SUSPENDED'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">next</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kc">None</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">getgeneratorstate</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">g</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'GEN_CLOSED'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10220">bpo-10220</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic attribute, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">inspect</span></code></a> module has a new function, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/inspect.html#inspect.getattr_static" title="inspect.getattr_static"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getattr_static()</span></code></a>. Unlike <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hasattr()</span></code></a>, this is a true read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is searching:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">A</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="nd">@property</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">f</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'Running'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">10</span> <span class="gp">...</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">A</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">getattr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'f'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">Running</span> <span class="go">10</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">inspect</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getattr_static</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'f'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go"><property object at 0x1022bd788></span> </pre></div> </div> </li> </ul> <blockquote> <div>(Contributed by Michael Foord.)</div></blockquote> </div> <div class="section" id="pydoc"> <h3>pydoc<a class="headerlink" href="#pydoc" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> module now provides a much-improved Web server interface, as well as a new command-line option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-b</span></code> to automatically open a browser window to display that server:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> pydoc3.2 -b </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Ron Adam; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2001">bpo-2001</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="dis"> <h3>dis<a class="headerlink" href="#dis" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#module-dis" title="dis: Disassembler for Python bytecode."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis</span></code></a> module gained two new functions for inspecting code, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.code_info" title="dis.code_info"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">code_info()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.show_code" title="dis.show_code"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">show_code()</span></code></a>. Both provide detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object. The former returns a string and the latter prints it:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">dis</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">random</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">show_code</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">random</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">Name: choice</span> <span class="go">Filename: /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py</span> <span class="go">Argument count: 2</span> <span class="go">Kw-only arguments: 0</span> <span class="go">Number of locals: 3</span> <span class="go">Stack size: 11</span> <span class="go">Flags: OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE</span> <span class="go">Constants:</span> <span class="go"> 0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'</span> <span class="go"> 1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'</span> <span class="go">Names:</span> <span class="go"> 0: _randbelow</span> <span class="go"> 1: len</span> <span class="go"> 2: ValueError</span> <span class="go"> 3: IndexError</span> <span class="go">Variable names:</span> <span class="go"> 0: self</span> <span class="go"> 1: seq</span> <span class="go"> 2: i</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>In addition, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/dis.html#dis.dis" title="dis.dis"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis()</span></code></a> function now accepts string arguments so that the common idiom <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis(compile(s,</span> <span class="pre">'',</span> <span class="pre">'eval'))</span></code> can be shortened to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dis(s)</span></code>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">dis</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go"> 1 0 LOAD_NAME 0 (x)</span> <span class="go"> 3 LOAD_CONST 0 (2)</span> <span class="go"> 6 BINARY_MODULO</span> <span class="go"> 7 LOAD_CONST 1 (1)</span> <span class="go"> 10 COMPARE_OP 2 (==)</span> <span class="go"> 13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE 28</span> <span class="go"> 16 LOAD_CONST 2 (3)</span> <span class="go"> 19 LOAD_NAME 0 (x)</span> <span class="go"> 22 BINARY_MULTIPLY</span> <span class="go"> 23 LOAD_CONST 1 (1)</span> <span class="go"> 26 BINARY_ADD</span> <span class="go"> 27 RETURN_VALUE</span> <span class="go"> >> 28 LOAD_NAME 0 (x)</span> <span class="go"> 31 LOAD_CONST 0 (2)</span> <span class="go"> 34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE</span> <span class="go"> 35 RETURN_VALUE</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does under-the-hood.</p> <p>(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9147">bpo-9147</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="dbm"> <h3>dbm<a class="headerlink" href="#dbm" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>All database modules now support the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setdefault()</span></code> methods.</p> <p>(Suggested by Ray Allen in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9523">bpo-9523</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="ctypes"> <h3>ctypes<a class="headerlink" href="#ctypes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>A new type, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ctypes.html#ctypes.c_ssize_t" title="ctypes.c_ssize_t"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ctypes.c_ssize_t</span></code></a> represents the C <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ssize_t</span></code> datatype.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="site"> <h3>site<a class="headerlink" href="#site" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module has three new functions useful for reporting on the details of a given Python installation.</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getsitepackages" title="site.getsitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getsitepackages()</span></code></a> lists all global site-packages directories.</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getuserbase" title="site.getuserbase"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getuserbase()</span></code></a> reports on the user’s base directory where data can be stored.</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#site.getusersitepackages" title="site.getusersitepackages"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">getusersitepackages()</span></code></a> reveals the user-specific site-packages directory path.</li> </ul> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">site</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getsitepackages</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',</span> <span class="go"> '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',</span> <span class="go"> '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getuserbase</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">'/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">site</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getusersitepackages</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">'/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Conveniently, some of site’s functionality is accessible directly from the command-line:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m site --user-base <span class="go">/Users/raymondhettinger/.local</span> <span class="gp">$</span> python -m site --user-site <span class="go">/Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6693">bpo-6693</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="sysconfig"> <h3>sysconfig<a class="headerlink" href="#sysconfig" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#module-sysconfig" title="sysconfig: Python's configuration information"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sysconfig</span></code></a> module makes it straightforward to discover installation paths and configuration variables that vary across platforms and installations.</p> <p>The module offers access simple access functions for platform and version information:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_platform" title="sysconfig.get_platform"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_platform()</span></code></a> returning values like <em>linux-i586</em> or <em>macosx-10.6-ppc</em>.</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_python_version" title="sysconfig.get_python_version"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_python_version()</span></code></a> returns a Python version string such as “3.2”.</li> </ul> <p>It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one of seven named schemes used by <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a>. Those include <em>posix_prefix</em>, <em>posix_home</em>, <em>posix_user</em>, <em>nt</em>, <em>nt_user</em>, <em>os2</em>, <em>os2_home</em>:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_paths" title="sysconfig.get_paths"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_paths()</span></code></a> makes a dictionary containing installation paths for the current installation scheme.</li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="../library/sysconfig.html#sysconfig.get_config_vars" title="sysconfig.get_config_vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_config_vars()</span></code></a> returns a dictionary of platform specific variables.</li> </ul> <p>There is also a convenient command-line interface:</p> <div class="highlight-doscon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">C:\Python32></span>python -m sysconfig <span class="go">Platform: "win32"</span> <span class="go">Python version: "3.2"</span> <span class="go">Current installation scheme: "nt"</span> <span class="go">Paths:</span> <span class="go"> data = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> include = "C:\Python32\Include"</span> <span class="go"> platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"</span> <span class="go"> platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"</span> <span class="go"> platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"</span> <span class="go"> purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"</span> <span class="go"> scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"</span> <span class="go"> stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"</span> <span class="go">Variables:</span> <span class="go"> BINDIR = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"</span> <span class="go"> EXE = ".exe"</span> <span class="go"> INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"</span> <span class="go"> LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"</span> <span class="go"> SO = ".pyd"</span> <span class="go"> VERSION = "32"</span> <span class="go"> abiflags = ""</span> <span class="go"> base = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> platbase = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> prefix = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> projectbase = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> py_version = "3.2"</span> <span class="go"> py_version_nodot = "32"</span> <span class="go"> py_version_short = "3.2"</span> <span class="go"> srcdir = "C:\Python32"</span> <span class="go"> userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="pdb"> <h3>pdb<a class="headerlink" href="#pdb" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pdb.html#module-pdb" title="pdb: The Python debugger for interactive interpreters."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb</span></code></a> debugger module gained a number of usability improvements:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li><code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pdb.py</span></code> now has a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-c</span></code> option that executes commands as given in a <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> script file.</li> <li>A <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pdbrc</span></code> script file can contain <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">continue</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">next</span></code> commands that continue debugging.</li> <li>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Pdb</span></code> class constructor now accepts a <em>nosigint</em> argument.</li> <li>New commands: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">l(list)</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ll(long</span> <span class="pre">list)</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">source</span></code> for listing source code.</li> <li>New commands: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">display</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">undisplay</span></code> for showing or hiding the value of an expression if it has changed.</li> <li>New command: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">interact</span></code> for starting an interactive interpreter containing the global and local names found in the current scope.</li> <li>Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.</li> </ul> <p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="configparser"> <h3>configparser<a class="headerlink" href="#configparser" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> module was modified to improve usability and predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax. The old <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> class was removed in favor of <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeConfigParser</span></code> which has in turn been renamed to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser" title="configparser.ConfigParser"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code></a>. Support for inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.</p> <p>Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"""</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[DEFAULT]</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">location = upper left</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">visible = yes</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">editable = no</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">color = blue</span> <span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[main]</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">title = Main Menu</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">color = green</span> <span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[options]</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">title = Options</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">"""</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'main'</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">'color'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'green'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'main'</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">'editable'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'no'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">section</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'options'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'title'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'Options'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'title'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'Options (editable: </span><span class="si">%(editable)s</span><span class="s1">)'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">section</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'title'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'Options (editable: no)'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.</p> <p>The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized. Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment prefixes, change the name of the <em>DEFAULT</em> section or switch the interpolation syntax.</p> <p>There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional interpolation handler <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ExtendedInterpolation" title="configparser.ExtendedInterpolation"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ExtendedInterpolation</span></code></a>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ConfigParser</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">interpolation</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ExtendedInterpolation</span><span class="p">())</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_dict</span><span class="p">({</span><span class="s1">'buildout'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">'directory'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">'/home/ambv/zope9'</span><span class="p">},</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="s1">'custom'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">'prefix'</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s1">'/usr/local'</span><span class="p">}})</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read_string</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"""</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[buildout]</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">parts =</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2"> zope9</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2"> instance</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">find-links =</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2"> ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist</span> <span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[zope9]</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">location = /opt/zope</span> <span class="gp">...</span><span class="s2"></span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">[instance]</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">zope9-location = ${zope9:location}</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf</span> <span class="gp">... </span><span class="s2">"""</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'buildout'</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">'find-links'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'instance'</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="s1">'zope-conf'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">instance</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">parser</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'instance'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'zope-conf'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">instance</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'zope9-location'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'/opt/zope'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.</p> <p>(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="urllib-parse"> <h3>urllib.parse<a class="headerlink" href="#urllib-parse" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>A number of usability improvements were made for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a> module.</p> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlparse" title="urllib.parse.urlparse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlparse()</span></code></a> function now supports <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6">IPv6</a> addresses as described in <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2732.html"><strong>RFC 2732</strong></a>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">urllib.parse</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">ParseResult(scheme='http',</span> <span class="go"> netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',</span> <span class="go"> path='/foo/',</span> <span class="go"> params='',</span> <span class="go"> query='',</span> <span class="go"> fragment='')</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urldefrag" title="urllib.parse.urldefrag"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urldefrag()</span></code></a> function now returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple"><span class="xref std std-term">named tuple</span></a>:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urldefrag</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'http://python.org/about/#target'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">r</span> <span class="go">DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="go">'http://python.org/about/'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">r</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fragment</span> <span class="go">'target'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>And, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.urlencode" title="urllib.parse.urlencode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urlencode()</span></code></a> function is now much more flexible, accepting either a string or bytes type for the <em>query</em> argument. If it is a string, then the <em>safe</em>, <em>encoding</em>, and <em>error</em> parameters are sent to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#urllib.parse.quote_plus" title="urllib.parse.quote_plus"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">quote_plus()</span></code></a> for encoding:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlencode</span><span class="p">([</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'type'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'telenovela'</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'name'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'¿Dónde Está Elisa?'</span><span class="p">)],</span> <span class="gp">... </span> <span class="n">encoding</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'latin-1'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>As detailed in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes"><span class="std std-ref">Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes</span></a>, all the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.parse.html#module-urllib.parse" title="urllib.parse: Parse URLs into or assemble them from components."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.parse</span></code></a> functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings. If ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">urllib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">parse</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">urlparse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="sa">b</span><span class="s1">'http://www.python.org:80/about/'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',</span> <span class="go"> path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2987">bpo-2987</a>, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5468">bpo-5468</a>, and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9873">bpo-9873</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="mailbox"> <h3>mailbox<a class="headerlink" href="#mailbox" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#module-mailbox" title="mailbox: Manipulate mailboxes in various formats"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox</span></code></a> module has been fixed for Python 3.2. The challenge was that mailbox had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages are best represented with <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> because various parts of a message may have different encodings.</p> <p>The solution harnessed the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package’s binary support for parsing arbitrary email messages. In addition, the solution required a number of API changes.</p> <p>As expected, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.add" title="mailbox.Mailbox.add"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add()</span></code></a> method for <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox" title="mailbox.Mailbox"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">mailbox.Mailbox</span></code></a> objects now accepts binary input.</p> <p><a class="reference internal" href="../library/io.html#io.StringIO" title="io.StringIO"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">StringIO</span></code></a> and text file input are deprecated. Also, string input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used. Previously it would fail when the email was processed in a later step.</p> <p>There is also support for binary output. The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_file" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get_file"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_file()</span></code></a> method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to incorrectly set the file to text-mode). There is also a new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get_bytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_bytes()</span></code></a> method that returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> representation of a message corresponding to a given <em>key</em>.</p> <p>It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API’s <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Mailbox.get_string" title="mailbox.Mailbox.get_string"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get_string()</span></code></a> method, but that approach is not very useful. Instead, it is best to extract messages from a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/mailbox.html#mailbox.Message" title="mailbox.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object or to load them from binary input.</p> <p>(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9124">bpo-9124</a>.)</p> </div> <div class="section" id="turtledemo"> <h3>turtledemo<a class="headerlink" href="#turtledemo" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>The demonstration code for the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/turtle.html#module-turtle" title="turtle: An educational framework for simple graphics applications"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">turtle</span></code></a> module was moved from the <em>Demo</em> directory to main library. It includes over a dozen sample scripts with lively displays. Being on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>, it can now be run directly from the command-line:</p> <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python -m turtledemo </pre></div> </div> <p>(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10199">bpo-10199</a>.)</p> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="multi-threading"> <h2>Multi-threading<a class="headerlink" href="#multi-threading" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <ul> <li><p class="first">The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running Python threads (generally known as the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global Interpreter Lock</span></a>) has been rewritten. Among the objectives were more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls. The notion of a “check interval” to allow thread switches has been abandoned and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds. This parameter is tunable through <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.setswitchinterval" title="sys.setswitchinterval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setswitchinterval()</span></code></a>. It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.</p> <p>Additional details about the implementation can be read from a <a class="reference external" href="https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html">python-dev mailing-list message</a> (however, “priority requests” as exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional <em>timeout</em> argument to their <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Lock.acquire" title="threading.Lock.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">acquire()</span></code></a> method. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7316">bpo-7316</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Similarly, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.Semaphore.acquire" title="threading.Semaphore.acquire"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.Semaphore.acquire()</span></code></a> also gained a <em>timeout</em> argument. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue850728">bpo-850728</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by signals on platforms using Pthreads. This means that Python programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing <kbd class="kbd docutils literal notranslate">Ctrl+C</kbd> in most shells). (Contributed by Reid Kleckner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8844">bpo-8844</a>.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="optimizations"> <h2>Optimizations<a class="headerlink" href="#optimizations" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>A number of small performance enhancements have been added:</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">Python’s peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">{1,</span> <span class="pre">2,</span> <span class="pre">3}</span></code> as being a test for membership in a set of constants. The optimizer recasts the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> as a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">frozenset</span></code></a> and stores the pre-built constant.</p> <p>Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start writing membership tests using set-notation. This style is both semantically clear and operationally fast:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">extension</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">name</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">rpartition</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'.'</span><span class="p">)[</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">extension</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s1">'xml'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'html'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'xhtml'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'css'</span><span class="p">}:</span> <span class="n">handle</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6690">bpo-6690</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Serializing and unserializing data using the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module is now several times faster.</p> <p>(Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the Unladen Swallow team in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9410">bpo-9410</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3873">bpo-3873</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort">Timsort algorithm</a> used in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list.sort" title="list.sort"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list.sort()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></code></a> now runs faster and uses less memory when called with a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-key-function"><span class="xref std std-term">key function</span></a>. Previously, every element of a list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key value associated with each element. Now, two arrays of keys and values are sorted in parallel. This saves the memory consumed by the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating comparisons.</p> <p>(Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9915">bpo-9915</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys. Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sort_keys</span></code> argument is true.</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7451">bpo-7451</a> and by Raymond Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10314">bpo-10314</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Recursive locks (created with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/threading.html#threading.RLock" title="threading.RLock"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">threading.RLock()</span></code></a> API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their previous pure Python implementation.</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3001">bpo-3001</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">split()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">splitlines()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">replace()</span></code> methods on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> objects. Likewise, the algorithm is also used by <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rfind()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rindex()</span></code>, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rsplit()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">rpartition()</span></code>.</p> <p>(Patch by Florent Xicluna in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7622">bpo-7622</a> and <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7462">bpo-7462</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Integer to string conversions now work two “digits” at a time, reducing the number of division and modulo operations.</p> <p>(<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6713">bpo-6713</a> by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor Stinner.)</p> </li> </ul> <p>There were several other minor optimizations. Set differencing now runs faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress Bennetts in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8685">bpo-8685</a>). The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.repeat()</span></code> method has a faster implementation (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1569291">bpo-1569291</a> by Alexander Belopolsky). The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">BaseHTTPRequestHandler</span></code> has more efficient buffering (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue3709">bpo-3709</a> by Andrew Schaaf). The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/operator.html#operator.attrgetter" title="operator.attrgetter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">operator.attrgetter()</span></code></a> function has been sped-up (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10160">bpo-10160</a> by Christos Georgiou). And <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7113">bpo-7113</a> by Łukasz Langa).</p> </div> <div class="section" id="unicode"> <h2>Unicode<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Python has been updated to <a class="reference external" href="http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/">Unicode 6.0.0</a>. The update to the standard adds over 2,000 new characters including <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji">emoji</a> symbols which are important for mobile phones.</p> <p>In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers while disqualifying the latter. For more information, see <a class="reference external" href="http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes">Unicode Character Database Changes</a>.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="codecs"> <h2>Codecs<a class="headerlink" href="#codecs" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Support was added for <em>cp720</em> Arabic DOS encoding (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue1616979">bpo-1616979</a>).</p> <p>MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument. In the default strict mode, it raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeDecodeError" title="UnicodeDecodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeDecodeError</span></code></a> when it encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#UnicodeEncodeError" title="UnicodeEncodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeEncodeError</span></code></a> for an unencodable character.</p> <p>The MBCS codec supports <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> error handlers for decoding, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'strict'</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> for encoding.</p> <p>To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'ignore'</span></code> handler for decoding and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'replace'</span></code> handler for encoding.</p> <p>On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> rather than the locale encoding.</p> <p>By default, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/tarfile.html#module-tarfile" title="tarfile: Read and write tar-format archive files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tarfile</span></code></a> uses <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'utf-8'</span></code> encoding on Windows (instead of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'mbcs'</span></code>) and the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">'surrogateescape'</span></code> error handler on all operating systems.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="documentation"> <h2>Documentation<a class="headerlink" href="#documentation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>The documentation continues to be improved.</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy sections such as <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#built-in-funcs"><span class="std std-ref">Built-in Functions</span></a>. In the case of <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a>, the links are accompanied by tables of cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog without having to read all of the docs.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links to the latest version of the source code. For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functools.html#module-functools" title="functools: Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">functools</span></code></a> module documentation has a quick link at the top labeled:</p> <blockquote> <div><p><strong>Source code</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.6/Lib/functools.py">Lib/functools.py</a>.</p> </div></blockquote> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see <a class="reference external" href="https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/">rationale</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The docs now contain more examples and recipes. In particular, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#module-re" title="re: Regular expression operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">re</span></code></a> module has an extensive section, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/re.html#re-examples"><span class="std std-ref">Regular Expression Examples</span></a>. Likewise, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">itertools</span></code></a> module continues to be updated with new <a class="reference internal" href="../library/itertools.html#itertools-recipes"><span class="std std-ref">Itertools Recipes</span></a>.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/datetime.html#module-datetime" title="datetime: Basic date and time types."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">datetime</span></code></a> module now has an auxiliary implementation in pure Python. No functionality was changed. This just provides an easier-to-read alternate implementation.</p> <p>(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9528">bpo-9528</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The unmaintained <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Demo</span></code> directory has been removed. Some demos were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Tools/demo</span></code> directory, and others were removed altogether.</p> <p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7962">bpo-7962</a>.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="idle"> <h2>IDLE<a class="headerlink" href="#idle" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <ul> <li><p class="first">The format menu now has an option to clean source files by stripping trailing whitespace.</p> <p>(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5150">bpo-5150</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa AquaTk.</p> <p>(Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6075">bpo-6075</a>.)</p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="section" id="code-repository"> <h2>Code Repository<a class="headerlink" href="#code-repository" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at <a class="reference external" href="http://svn.python.org">http://svn.python.org</a> there is now a <a class="reference external" href="https://www.mercurial-scm.org/">Mercurial</a> repository at <a class="reference external" href="https://hg.python.org/">https://hg.python.org/</a>.</p> <p>After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary repository. This distributed version control system should make it easier for members of the community to create and share external changesets. See <span class="target" id="index-14"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0385"><strong>PEP 385</strong></a> for details.</p> <p>To learn to use the new version control system, see the <a class="reference external" href="http://hginit.com">tutorial by Joel Spolsky</a> or the <a class="reference external" href="https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide">Guide to Mercurial Workflows</a>.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="build-and-c-api-changes"> <h2>Build and C API Changes<a class="headerlink" href="#build-and-c-api-changes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <em>idle</em>, <em>pydoc</em> and <em>2to3</em> scripts are now installed with a version-specific suffix on <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">make</span> <span class="pre">altinstall</span></code> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10679">bpo-10679</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and others). A visible difference in Python is that <a class="reference internal" href="../library/unicodedata.html#unicodedata.numeric" title="unicodedata.numeric"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicodedata.numeric()</span></code></a> now returns the correct value for large code points, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#repr" title="repr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">repr()</span></code></a> may consider more characters as printable.</p> <p>(Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5127">bpo-5127</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers (which are detected by the configure script). They can still be disabled selectively by specifying <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--without-computed-gotos</span></code>.</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9203">bpo-9203</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The option <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-wctype-functions</span></code> was removed. The built-in unicode database is now used for all functions.</p> <p>(Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9210">bpo-9210</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Hash values are now values of a new type, <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_hash_t</span></code>, which is defined to be the same size as a pointer. Previously they were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still only 32 bits long. As a result of this fix, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dict</span></code></a> can now hold more than <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">2**32</span></code> entries on builds with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but their performance degraded catastrophically).</p> <p>(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin Peterson; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue9778">bpo-9778</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">A new macro <code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VA_COPY</span></code> copies the state of the variable argument list. It is equivalent to C99 <em>va_copy</em> but available on all Python platforms (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2443">bpo-2443</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">A new C API function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PySys_SetArgvEx" title="PySys_SetArgvEx"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PySys_SetArgvEx()</span></code></a> allows an embedded interpreter to set <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.argv" title="sys.argv"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></code></a> without also modifying <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5753">bpo-5753</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_CallObject</span></code> is now only available in macro form. The function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility reasons, is now removed – the macro was introduced in 1997 (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8276">bpo-8276</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">There is a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a> which is analogous to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/long.html#c.PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow" title="PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow()</span></code></a>. They both serve to convert Python <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> into a native fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the conversion won’t fit (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7767">bpo-7767</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/unicode.html#c.PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString" title="PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString()</span></code></a> function now returns <em>not equal</em> if the Python string is <em>NUL</em> terminated.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">There is a new function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc" title="PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc()</span></code></a> that is like <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/exceptions.html#c.PyErr_NewException" title="PyErr_NewException"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyErr_NewException()</span></code></a> but allows a docstring to be specified. This lets C exceptions have the same self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue7033">bpo-7033</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">When compiled with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">--with-valgrind</span></code> option, the pymalloc allocator will be automatically disabled when running under Valgrind. This gives improved memory leak detection when running under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue2422">bpo-2422</a>).</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Removed the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">O?</span></code> format from the <em>PyArg_Parse</em> functions. The format is no longer used and it had never been documented (<a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8837">bpo-8837</a>).</p> </li> </ul> <p>There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.6/Misc/NEWS">Misc/NEWS</a> file for a complete list.</p> <p>Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt">Mac/BuildScript/README.txt</a> for details. For users running a 32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac OS X 10.6. Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative such as <a class="reference external" href="https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads">ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9</a>. See <a class="reference external" href="https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/">https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/</a> for additional details.</p> </div> <div class="section" id="porting-to-python-3-2"> <h2>Porting to Python 3.2<a class="headerlink" href="#porting-to-python-3-2" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code:</p> <ul> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#module-configparser" title="configparser: Configuration file parser."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">configparser</span></code></a> module has a number of clean-ups. The major change is to replace the old <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ConfigParser</span></code> class with long-standing preferred alternative <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SafeConfigParser</span></code>. In addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>The interpolation syntax is now validated on <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.get" title="configparser.ConfigParser.get"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">get()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.set" title="configparser.ConfigParser.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> operations. In the default interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are valid: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%(name)s</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">%%</span></code>, the latter being an escaped percent sign.</li> <li>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.set" title="configparser.ConfigParser.set"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">set()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.ConfigParser.add_section" title="configparser.ConfigParser.add_section"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">add_section()</span></code></a> methods now verify that values are actual strings. Formerly, unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.</li> <li>Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise either <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateSectionError" title="configparser.DuplicateSectionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateSectionError</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../library/configparser.html#configparser.DuplicateOptionError" title="configparser.DuplicateOptionError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">DuplicateOptionError</span></code></a>. Formerly, duplicates would silently overwrite a previous entry.</li> <li>Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the <strong>;</strong> character can be safely used in values.</li> <li>Comments now can be indented. Consequently, for <strong>;</strong> or <strong>#</strong> to appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to be interpolated. This keeps comment prefix characters in values from being mistaken as comments.</li> <li><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">""</span></code> is now a valid value and is no longer automatically converted to an empty string. For empty strings, use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">"option</span> <span class="pre">="</span></code> in a line.</li> </ul> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/nntplib.html#module-nntplib" title="nntplib: NNTP protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">nntplib</span></code></a> module was reworked extensively, meaning that its APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.</p> </li> <li><p class="first"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> objects can no longer be used as filenames; instead, they should be converted to <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.tostring()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.fromstring()</span></code> have been renamed to <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.tobytes()</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">array.frombytes()</span></code> for clarity. The old names have been deprecated. (See <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue8990">bpo-8990</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first"><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyArg_Parse*()</span></code> functions:</p> <ul class="simple"> <li>“t#” format has been removed: use “s#” or “s*” instead</li> <li>“w” and “w#” formats has been removed: use “w*” instead</li> </ul> </li> <li><p class="first">The <code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCObject</span></code> type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed. To wrap opaque C pointers in Python objects, the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/capsule.html#c.PyCapsule" title="PyCapsule"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyCapsule</span></code></a> API should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.setfilesystemencoding()</span></code> function was removed because it had a flawed design.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/random.html#random.seed" title="random.seed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed()</span></code></a> function and method now salt string seeds with an sha512 hash function. To access the previous version of <em>seed</em> in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the <em>version</em> argument to <em>1</em>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.seed(s,</span> <span class="pre">version=1)</span></code>.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The previously deprecated <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string.maketrans()</span></code> function has been removed in favor of the static methods <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes.maketrans" title="bytes.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes.maketrans()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray.maketrans" title="bytearray.maketrans"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray.maketrans()</span></code></a>. This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/string.html#module-string" title="string: Common string operations."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code></a> module. Now, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytes" title="bytes"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">bytearray</span></code></a> each have their own <strong>maketrans</strong> and <strong>translate</strong> methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.</p> <p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue5675">bpo-5675</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The previously deprecated <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">contextlib.nested()</span></code> function has been removed in favor of a plain <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#with"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">with</span></code></a> statement which can accept multiple context managers. The latter technique is faster (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:</p> <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'mylog.txt'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'a.out'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'w'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">line</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">infile</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="s1">'<critical>'</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">line</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">outfile</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">line</span><span class="p">)</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>(Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; <a class="reference external" href="https://codereview.appspot.com/53094">appspot issue 53094</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/struct.html#struct.pack" title="struct.pack"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack()</span></code></a> now only allows bytes for the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">s</span></code> string pack code. Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly encode them to bytes using UTF-8. This was problematic because it made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length segment of a structure.</p> <p>Code such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack('<6sHHBBB',</span> <span class="pre">'GIF87a',</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code> should be rewritten with to use bytes instead of text, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">struct.pack('<6sHHBBB',</span> <span class="pre">b'GIF87a',</span> <span class="pre">x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></code>.</p> <p>(Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner; <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10783">bpo-10783</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#module-xml.etree.ElementTree" title="xml.etree.ElementTree: Implementation of the ElementTree API."><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree</span></code></a> class now raises an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/xml.etree.elementtree.html#xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError" title="xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError</span></code></a> when a parse fails. Previously it raised an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pyexpat.html#xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError" title="xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError</span></code></a>.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The new, longer <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str()</span></code></a> value on floats may break doctests which rely on the old output format.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">In <a class="reference internal" href="../library/subprocess.html#subprocess.Popen" title="subprocess.Popen"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">subprocess.Popen</span></code></a>, the default value for <em>close_fds</em> is now <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> under Unix; under Windows, it is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if the three standard streams are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> otherwise. Previously, <em>close_fds</em> was always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code> by default, which produced difficult to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would leak into the child process.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from <a class="reference internal" href="../library/urllib.request.html#module-urllib.request" title="urllib.request: Extensible library for opening URLs."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">urllib.request</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.client.html#module-http.client" title="http.client: HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets)."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.client</span></code></a>. Such support is still present on the server side (in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/http.server.html#module-http.server" title="http.server: HTTP server and request handlers."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">http.server</span></code></a>).</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10711">bpo-10711</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise <a class="reference internal" href="../library/socket.html#socket.timeout" title="socket.timeout"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">socket.timeout</span></code></a> when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic <a class="reference internal" href="../library/ssl.html#ssl.SSLError" title="ssl.SSLError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></code></a>.</p> <p>(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue10272">bpo-10272</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">The misleading functions <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_AcquireLock" title="PyEval_AcquireLock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_AcquireLock()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_ReleaseLock" title="PyEval_ReleaseLock"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_ReleaseLock()</span></code></a> have been officially deprecated. The thread-state aware APIs (such as <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_SaveThread" title="PyEval_SaveThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_SaveThread()</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_RestoreThread" title="PyEval_RestoreThread"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_RestoreThread()</span></code></a>) should be used instead.</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Due to security risks, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.handle_accept()</span></code> has been deprecated, and a new function, <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">asyncore.handle_accepted()</span></code>, was added to replace it.</p> <p>(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in <a class="reference external" href="https://bugs.python.org/issue6706">bpo-6706</a>.)</p> </li> <li><p class="first">Due to the new <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> implementation, <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.PyEval_InitThreads" title="PyEval_InitThreads"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyEval_InitThreads()</span></code></a> cannot be called before <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/init.html#c.Py_Initialize" title="Py_Initialize"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_Initialize()</span></code></a> anymore.</p> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">What’s New In Python 3.2</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi">PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module">PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging">PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module">PEP 3148: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">concurrent.futures</span></code> module</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories">PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files">PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-1">PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-language-changes">Other Language Changes</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-improved-and-deprecated-modules">New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#email">email</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#elementtree">elementtree</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#functools">functools</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#itertools">itertools</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#collections">collections</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#threading">threading</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#datetime-and-time">datetime and time</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#math">math</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#abc">abc</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#io">io</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#reprlib">reprlib</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#logging">logging</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#csv">csv</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#contextlib">contextlib</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#decimal-and-fractions">decimal and fractions</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#ftp">ftp</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#popen">popen</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#select">select</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#gzip-and-zipfile">gzip and zipfile</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#tarfile">tarfile</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#hashlib">hashlib</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#ast">ast</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#os">os</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#shutil">shutil</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#sqlite3">sqlite3</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#html">html</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#socket">socket</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#ssl">ssl</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#nntp">nntp</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#certificates">certificates</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#imaplib">imaplib</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#http-client">http.client</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#unittest">unittest</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#random">random</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#poplib">poplib</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#asyncore">asyncore</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#tempfile">tempfile</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#inspect">inspect</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pydoc">pydoc</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#dis">dis</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#dbm">dbm</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#ctypes">ctypes</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#site">site</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#sysconfig">sysconfig</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#pdb">pdb</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#configparser">configparser</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#urllib-parse">urllib.parse</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#mailbox">mailbox</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#turtledemo">turtledemo</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#optimizations">Optimizations</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode">Unicode</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#codecs">Codecs</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#idle">IDLE</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#code-repository">Code Repository</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#build-and-c-api-changes">Build and C API Changes</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#porting-to-python-3-2">Porting to Python 3.2</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="3.3.html" title="previous chapter">What’s New In Python 3.3</a></p> <h4>Next topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="3.1.html" title="next chapter">What’s New In Python 3.1</a></p> <div role="note" aria-label="source link"> <h3>This Page</h3> <ul class="this-page-menu"> <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li> <li> <a href="https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.6/Doc/whatsnew/3.2.rst" rel="nofollow">Show Source </a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General 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